First, an apology.
The first part of this post was published on May 26. It is now September. I had most of the code for this part done by then. But finalizing the code took some more effort. Once that was done, explaining took a while. There were quite a few things I had to learn myself first.
So now, months later, I present this humble offering to the Gods of C++ and template meta-programming.
In Part 1 we created our State or SelfReturning class (provided below for reference). It works, but as you can see - required modifications whenever we change the function arguments or return types.
Compilation
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| struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = std::pair<SelfReturning, const Context>;
using FuncType = RetType(*)(const Context&, Event);
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{func} {};
RetType operator()(const Context& ctx, Event evt) { return _func(ctx, evt); }
FuncType _func;
};
using State = SelfReturning;
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The first thing we want to do is get rid of this requirement. First, function arguments.
Compilation
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| template <class... Args>
struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = std::pair<SelfReturning, const Context>;
using FuncType = RetType(*)(Args... args); // (1)
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{func} {};
RetType operator()(Args... args) { // (2)
return _func(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
FuncType _func;
};
using State = SelfReturning<const Context&, Event>;
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Here we use variadic templates and perfect forwarding to forward all the function arguments directly to the target function. You can see that in (1) and (2) we use Args... and not the common Args&&.... This is because the types are defined by the class template and are not deduced on the function call.
With this behind us, we address the return type.
Here we come to another recursive issue. While the return type std::pair<SelfReturning, const Context> depends on our SelfReturning type, SelfReturning itself depends on the return type. This means that just passing in the return type will not work (much like our original return-type issue). To solve it, we use a template-template parameter.
Compilation
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| template <template <class T> class Base, class... Args> // (1)
struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = Base<SelfReturning>; //(2)
using FuncType = RetType(*)(Args... args);
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{ func } {}
RetType operator() (Args... args) {
return _func(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
FuncType _func;
};
template <class T>
using PairWithCtx = std::pair<T, const Context>; // (3)
using State = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx, const Context&, Event>;
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In (1), we pass in the template for the return type. In (2), we instantiate the type with our SelfReturning class. As we’ve seen before, C++ allows this type of recursion, so we’re safe. In (3) we define our return-type template to be a pair with a const Context as the second member.
Done.
But what if we want to only return the SelfReturning class? For that, we define a new template - an identity template.
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| template <class T>
struct identity {
using type = T;
};
template <class T>
using identity_t = typename identity<T>::type;
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We define the identity struct to hold a type, and use the identity_t alias to access the type directly. This looks a bit odd, but C++ does not allow us to alias the template parameter directly. When isntatiating the identity_t template with a type, we get the safe type again. Using that, we can return SelfReturning directly.
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| using State = SelfReturning<identity_t>;
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Personally, though, I hate having to write down the trivial cases explicitly. So let’s use some dirty tricks.
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| template <template <class T> class Base = identity_t, class... Args> // (1)
struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = Base<SelfReturning>;
using FuncType = RetType(*)(Args... args);
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{ func } {}
RetType operator() (Args... args) {
return _func(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
FuncType _func;
template <class... AltArgs>
using WithArgs = SelfReturning<Base, AltArgs...>; // (2)
};
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In (1) we simply add identity_t as the default argument for Base. This lets us write the most trivial case (return SelfReturning, take no arguments) as SelfReturning<>. Nice.
However, if we put anything into this set of template arguments, it will override identity_t. That’s what the code at (2) is for. We set WithArgs to be SelfReturning with whatever Base parameter it already has, thus only accepting template parameters for the arguments. Now we can write all of the following with ease.
Compilation
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| using Trivial = SelfReturning<>;
using InPair = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx>;
using TrivialWithArgs = SelfReturning<>::WithArgs<Context&, Event>;
using InPairWithArgs = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx>::WithArgs<const Context&, Event>;
// Or alternatively
using InPairWithArgs2 = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx, const Context&, Event>;
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In Part 1 I promised generalizing the SelfReturning class and getting some compile time guarantees. We’ve accomplished our generalization goal, so it’s time to get some safety in place.
While our use of the switch statement to discern different events is nice and concise, it is also somewhat error prone. It is easy to miss a case (though that can be prevented using compiler errors) or accidentally mistake one event for another. The latter is especially true if we want to pass information along with our event notification.
One easy way to avoid those mistakes is to resolve the choice using function overloading instead of switch statements. Consider the following
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| #include <cstdio>
// (1)
enum class EventType {A, B};
void Switch(EventType evt) {
switch(evt) {
case EventType::A:
puts("A");
return;
case EventType::B:
puts("B");
return;
}
}
// (2)
struct EventA {};
struct EventB {};
void Overload(EventA) { puts("A"); }
void Overload(EventB) { puts("B"); }
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In (1) we use a switch to discern the event type. It is easy to forget a return or a break. If we passed more data along, the signature for Switch would likely change to void Switch(EventType evt, void* data). That’s definitely bad.
In (2), we cannot mistake the types, and data can easily be passed inside the event structs. Sadly, the events are not different types, and C++ does not allow for heterogeneous containers. Or does it?
Enter C++17’s ✨std::variant✨.
What is std::variant, you ask? Well, it is a union. A safe union! Safe meaning that you can only get a value from it if it really is there. No more type confusion; no more casting void pointers. But how do we get the values out of std::variant? Using std::visit, of course!
Compilation, Execution
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| #include <variant>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdio>
struct EventA {}; // (1)
struct EventB {};
struct EventHandler { // (2)
void operator() (EventA) { puts("A"); }
void operator() (EventB) { puts("B"); }
};
using event_t = std::variant<EventA, EventB>;
int main() {
std::vector<event_t> events = {EventA{}, EventB{}};
for (auto& event : events) {
std::visit(EventHandler{}, event); // (3)
}
return 0;
}
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In (1) we define our new event types. This time they are different types, not just different values. In (2) we define our event handler. All we need is an function overload for every possible type, and a struct with multiple operator() methods is an easy way to do it. Now all that is left to do is call std::visit with our handler and an event. If we forget to handle an event type - the code does not compile! This way, we know that we always handle all event types, and never mix them up.
Now, if you liked the previous part, you probably don’t like writing a different handler class for every function. It completely ruins the locality of the code. But, we are using C++17, aren’t we?
Compilation, Execution
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| #include <variant>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdio>
template<class... Ts> struct overloaded : Ts... { using Ts::operator()...; }; // (1)
template<class... Ts> overloaded(Ts...) -> overloaded<Ts...>;
struct EventA {};
struct EventB {};
using event_t = std::variant<EventA, EventB>;
int main() {
std::vector<event_t> events = {EventA{}, EventB{}};
for (auto& event : events) {
std::visit(overloaded { // (2)
[] (EventA) { puts("A"); },
[] (EventB) { puts("B"); }
}, event);
}
return 0;
}
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If you’re not familiar with C++17, there may be a lot to take in here. In (1) we define a class that takes multiple lambdas and overloads them. In (2) we instantiate that class to inline our event handling functions.
The full explanation to this code is a bit long, so I wrote another post to explain it.
Applied to the state-machine, it will look like this:
Compilation, Execution
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| #include <tuple>
#include <cstdio>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <variant>
template<class... Ts> struct overloaded : Ts... { using Ts::operator()...; };
template<class... Ts> overloaded(Ts...) -> overloaded<Ts...>;
struct EventA {};
struct EventB {};
using Event = std::variant<EventA, EventB>;
struct Context {
Context Inc() const {
return Context{counter + 1};
}
int counter = 0;
};
template <class T>
struct identity {
using type = T;
};
template <class T>
using identity_t = typename identity<T>::type;
template <template <class T> class Base = identity_t, class... Args>
struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = Base<SelfReturning>;
using FuncType = RetType(*)(Args... args);
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{ func } {}
RetType operator() (Args... args) {
return _func(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
FuncType _func;
template <class... AltArgs>
using WithArgs = SelfReturning<Base, AltArgs...>;
};
template <class T>
using PairWithCtx = std::pair<T, const Context>;
using State = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx>::WithArgs<const Context&, Event>;
State::RetType A(const Context&, Event);
State::RetType B(const Context&, Event);
State::RetType A(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State A, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA) { return make_pair(A, ctx); },
[&] (EventB) { return make_pair(B, ctx.Inc()); }
}, evt);
}
State::RetType B(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State B, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA) { return make_pair(A, ctx.Inc()); },
[&] (EventB) { return make_pair(B, ctx); }
}, evt);
}
int main() {
State state = A;
Context ctx{};
Event events[] = {EventB{}, EventA{}, EventB{}, EventA{}, };
for (auto evt : events) {
std::tie(state, ctx) = state(ctx, evt);
}
return 0;
}
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As you can see, the change is minimal.
With that, it is time to address an issue I completely neglected in Part 1.
Passing in data.
Our current state-machine model is based on the idea that the events themselves are the only information the states need. This is naive. In many real-life scenarios, events carry data with them. Now, with std::variant, we can puts data into the different event types. All we need to do is add data-members to our event structs. We define our new, data-carrying events as follows:
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| struct EventA {
const char* msg{nullptr};
};
struct EventB {
int number{0};
};
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Nothing else needs to change. And now, in the state functions, we can easily access the event data:
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| State::RetType A(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State A, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA e) {
if (e.msg != nullptr) {
printf("A message = \"%s\"", e.msg);
} else {
puts("A message = nullptr");
}
return make_pair(A, ctx);
},
[&] (EventB) { return make_pair(B, ctx.Inc()); }
}, evt);
}
State::RetType B(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State B, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA e) { return make_pair(A, ctx.Inc()); },
[&] (EventB e) {
printf("B number = %d\n", e.number);
return make_pair(B, ctx);
}
}, evt);
}
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Et voilà.
Putting everything together now, we get the following code:
Compilation,Execution
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| #include <tuple>
#include <cstdio>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <variant>
template<class... Ts> struct overloaded : Ts... { using Ts::operator()...; };
template<class... Ts> overloaded(Ts...) -> overloaded<Ts...>;
struct EventA {
const char* msg{nullptr};
};
struct EventB {
int number{0};
};
using Event = std::variant<EventA, EventB>;
struct Context {
Context Inc() const {
return Context{counter + 1};
}
int counter = 0;
};
template <class T>
struct identity {
using type = T;
};
template <class T>
using identity_t = typename identity<T>::type;
template <template <class T> class Base = identity_t, class... Args>
struct SelfReturning {
using RetType = Base<SelfReturning>;
using FuncType = RetType(*)(Args... args);
SelfReturning(FuncType func) : _func{ func } {}
RetType operator() (Args... args) {
return _func(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
FuncType _func;
template <class... AltArgs>
using WithArgs = SelfReturning<Base, AltArgs...>;
};
template <class T>
using PairWithCtx = std::pair<T, const Context>;
using State = SelfReturning<PairWithCtx>::WithArgs<const Context&, Event>;
State::RetType A(const Context&, Event);
State::RetType B(const Context&, Event);
State::RetType A(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State A, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA e) {
if (e.msg != nullptr) {
printf("A message = \"%s\"", e.msg);
} else {
puts("A message = nullptr");
}
return make_pair(A, ctx);
},
[&] (EventB) { return make_pair(B, ctx.Inc()); }
}, evt);
}
State::RetType B(const Context& ctx, Event evt) {
printf("State B, counter = %d\n", ctx.counter);
return std::visit(overloaded{
[&] (EventA e) { return make_pair(A, ctx.Inc()); },
[&] (EventB e) {
printf("B number = %d\n", e.number);
return make_pair(B, ctx);
}
}, evt);
}
int main() {
State state = A;
Context ctx{};
Event events[] = {EventB{}, EventA{}, EventB{}, EventB{10}, EventA{}, EventA{"Hello, world!"}};
for (auto evt : events) {
std::tie(state, ctx) = state(ctx, evt);
}
return 0;
}
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As promised, we have used some dark template magic to achieve:
- A nice generalization of
SelfReturning, allowing customization of both return types and argument types; - Better compile-time safety by replacing the
switch statement with overload resolution; - Passing data along with the events.
- Hopefully, a lot of fun along the way.